Authors: Valer Simion Cosma Researcher at HAS Research Centre for the Humanities, Institute of Ethnography in Budapest (Hungary) Center for the Study of Modernity and the Rural World
Ágota Ábrán PhD student at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, Department of Social Anthropology Center for the Study of Modernity and the Rural World
Part I. History
Valer started high-school in the year 2000 so he caught the old textbooks that were modified at the beginning of the post-socialist era. These were the first years of the alternative textbooks and the changes mirrored attitudes determined by the adherence negotiations to NATO and the European Union. Slowly, Romania was exiting the isolationist paradigm that saw the country as a fortress forever besieged and haunted by its greedy neighbours, especially the Hungarians and the Turks. School expanded our vision of the country as a bastion of Christianity opposing the Muslim invasions, in a history constructed around the century old ideal of the unification of all Romanians into a single state, with the ideal of Romania’s Europeanisation. Suddenly, the heroic deeds of the great defenders of Orthodoxy and Romanianity, such as Stephen the Great – Ștefan cel Mare, voivode of Moldavia from 1457 to 1504, who also became Saint in the years of post-communism – have been envisioned in the European context. This vision amplified their role as wise diplomats with ingenuity in international relations. History classes started to present even the Hungarian king Mathias – king between 1458–1490, portrayed as the greatest Hungarian king, but of Romanian origin –through his newly re-surfaced alliances and strategic agreements. Meanwhile, the professors still insisted on such diplomatic matches won by the Romanians while emphasising the injustice of the Hungarian presence and dominance over Transylvania.
On the other side, Ágota, who started an all Hungarian high-school in 2004 in Transylvania, ‘compliments’ of the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania party, still remembers one of the first things she was told by her history professor. He went into a tangent about how he had to teach them the official Romanian version of history, an untrue version as opposed to the ‘oh so mighty’ true Hungarian version. As a Hungarian speaker from Transylvania such ‘barren historical’ debates about whether Romanians were the descendants of the Daco-Roman populations living in the area before the Hungarian tribes arrived in the Carpathian Basin during the period of Conquests (roughly 800-1000 AD) entered conversations early on for children. School did not seem to give any nuance to a history tainted by nationalistic agendas on both sides. Worse still, we never learned to appreciate the diverse complexities and issues of the different ethnic, confessional, and class divides, struggles for rights and power. History in school seemed to get stuck at recapitulating dates of wars, understanding political nation building, European modernity, and generally treated the country and nation as a whole. This was infused with the occasional sly dig from the professors at whether it was a cause for celebration or mourning when Transylvania became part of the Romanian Kingdom in 1918.As school flattened out some conflicts and divides inside the Romanian countries while emphasising others, and aimed at painting Romania in a linear evolution towards Western civilisation and progress, in this post we grapple with some topics that were omitted from our curriculum and their destructive consequences.
Peasants versus nations
A history focused on different nation building agendas missed the issues produced by class and economic divides as they ran along or intersected ethnic ones. On the contrary, we have learned about the European cultural and scientific reforms, or Romania’s place between the Orient and the Occident, the country emerging from these stories as a whole. In these stories modernisation and Europeanisation became the final and successful end to its evolution. We have seldom learned or understood anything about the stark inequalities and power plays between serfs, peasants, traders, and the aristocracy. What about the peasant rebellions of the 15th century in Transylvania, suppressed by the Hungarian nobility, the Seklers and the Saxons, who formed the UnioTriumNationum, in defence of the kingdom, a Union directed explicitly against the peasantry? This UnioTriumNationum also excluded the mainly Romanian speaking Orthodox Christian peasantry from political participation. Nor did we ever contemplate the place of the Romanian countries in Europe in any other way than fighting the Ottoman Empire and striving for Europeanisation. Yet, when in 1866, after the revolutions of 1848-1849, the Compromise was born between the Hungarian and Austrian Empire, and the formerly autonomous Transylvania was attached to Hungary. Transylvania became the deindustrialised periphery producing cheap raw material for the rapidly industrializing Hungarian mainland, becoming heavily dependent on foreign capital.At the same time, a stark difference emerged between a rapidly industrialising Western and a mainly agrarian Eastern Europe, explained by social historians, through the concept of ‘second serfdom’. Industrialisation and population growth throughout Europe increased the demand for cereal crops, while decreased land available in Western Europe for such cultivations. Looking towards East Central Europe for food production, Western European countries created the demand for agricultural production as a merchandise on a global market, rather than for a subsistence economy. This capitalist economy created the space for large landowners in East Central Europe to tie peasants to land, decreasing rights to property and free movement. This phenomenon of second serfdom, thus, first occurred in the Eastern part of German-dominated territories, in the middle of the 15th century, then spread to Poland, Bohemia, Moravian and Hungary in the 16th, parts of Austria in the 17th and finally Tsarist Russia, Wallachia and Moldavia in the 18th and 19th century.
In the years of communism, especially in its nationalistic phase of the last two decades, historical accounts in school built on a kind of class struggle and meant to unite the nation’s mind and feelings. This struggle presented itself between the peasantry – and later on the proletariat – who found themselves in an alliance with the voivodes animated by profound patriotic ideals, on one side, struggling against the greedy boyars, on the other. The boyars, thus were forever part of betrayals and only interested in preserving and multiplying their privileges in alliance with no matter which neighbouring power subdued the country. However, after the fall of communism class struggle became a taboo subject, seen as a Marxist aberration through which communism imposed from outside sought to falsify history. The role of the boyars as a civilising force started to come to the forefront. Both the boyars and Orthodoxy became a key element of circumscribing the national DNA, shielding the national identity against successive denationalising waves – read: the threat of becoming Hungarian for the Transylvanian Romanians. Later, the Greek Catholic Church entered historical accounts by emphasising their role in the process of constructing a modern nation. For a long time, this was described as the ‘revival of the nation’s consciousness’ and the re-attachment of the Romanians to Europe. Class did not have space in this narrative, therefore, the internal struggles between the Romanian communities and the inter-ethnic relations of the Transylvanian realities were mitigated. For instance, the merciless exploitation and constant identity and religious harassment of the majority peasant Romanians who resisted becoming Hungarian and did not deny their ancestral faith, Orthodoxy in favour of Greek Catholicism – as happened to the Romanian noble families in the Middle Ages – was played down. On the other hand, the role of Hungarians in the imposition of the Romanian language in the church ministry and in the first translated holy and church texts into Romanian (in the context of the Protestant reform) is not obscured. It is mentioned in a tendentious, anti-Orthodox, and explicitly, anti-Romanian manner. Consequently, Romania became ever homogenised in terms of class yet built on the idea of a single nation that belongs to Europe.
Europeanisation: civilising Romania
The desire to belong to the civilised world, embodied by Western Europe, was the support around which the nation-building process was structured in the case of Romanians, even as far as the end of the 18th century. The ideal of a European nation, of ‘entering Europe’ or the trial of our Europeanity remains an obsession in the political, cultural, and civic sphere. This ‘discovery’ of Europeanity aimed at legitimising Romania’s union with the Occident and implied the detachment from the East in which we have been held by the Ottoman occupation for centuries, according to the standard historical narrative. This change was presented through two arguments. The first was the increasing emphasis in historical accounts on the ‘civilising’ effort of the Romanian Enlightenment scholars from Habsburg Transylvania, labelled by posterity the Transylvanian School. Their contribution to the Latinization of the Romanian language, to the appearance of the first dictionaries and historical writings were used to highlight the Latin roots of Romanians. This was also linked to the establishment of the Greek Catholic Church and the first higher education institutions in Romania. The second, coming from the Romanian Principalities, emphasised the role of the first generation of boyars schooled in the Occident, especially in France, as causing a series of irreversible changes in Romanian society. The Bonjourists, as they were ironically named at the time (from the French bon jour), were those who imposed French on the Romanian language, as well as a series of changes in clothing and manners, according to the Western fashion. However, all these narratives lack something essential. Although the role of the ‘Bonjourists’ is not negligible, the role of the Russians in this process is played down at best and totally neglected at worst. During the periods of Russian occupation and protectorate in the last decades of the 18th century and first half of the 19th century, French literature and language, together with Western fashion and later French inspired codes of law were brought into the two Romanian Principalities through the Russians. The Russians perceived themselves as the representatives of European civilisation, and thus civilising a territory dominated by Asian manners and fashions. After the 1989 revolution, however, Russian as much as other Oriental influences fell out of favour in historical accounts of Europeanisation.
When Romania was not a victim but a culprit: ethnicities
Caught between narratives of nationalism and European modernisation, the history of Romania missed the inclusion of other ethnic histories. For instance, in 1919, 28% of the citizens of the whole of Romania belonged to different ethnic groups, and in the census of 2011, 11% of the citizens declared themselves of other ethnic background than Romanian, 3.3% declaring themselves to be Roma – there are suggestions that some refused to declare their ethnic background or declare themselves Romanian ethnic. What is striking in this situation is that Roma citizens have been often erased from visions of the country’s history. Striking especially in the light that until the middle of the 19th century in Wallachia and Moldova, Roma were slaves of monasteries, noblemen, and the king. In Transylvania, similarly, some Roma lived in conditions of slavery, while others were ‘royal serfs’ dependent on the king, although they had an autonomous ethnic status living under the authority of their ‘voivodes’. A movie released in 2015, entitled Aferim!, directed by Radu Jude, tells the story of a policeman in 19th century Wallachia hired to find a runaway Roma slave. The anthropologist Vintilă Mihăilescu, analyses how at one film screening a viewer later described the film as ‘exotic’. Exotic, because the film had something unseen, or non-existent in the nation’s imagery: Roma as part of the history of the nation.[i]
[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mmTYOY_jQWc[/embed]
Exotic also, because the usual historical narrative sees Romanians as having been exploited by others, not Romanians acting as the exploiter. Assuming slavery as part of the past of the Romanian society, together with the critical recovery of the anti-semitic attacks from the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, it does not fit well within the myth of the peaceful and tolerant Romanians, who have humanely received all ‘foreigners’ and who never attacked anyone. In the category of invisible or less visible minorities also come the Bulgarians and Turkish-Tatars, as their history reflects the expansionary ambitions of the young Romanian kingdom that emerged from the rule of the Ottoman Empire, as well as the population exchange practiced in the first half of the 20th century out of the desire to homogenise the Balkan nations. In 1994, Romanian director Lucian Pintilie released the film ‘An Unforgettable Summer’, after a short-story from the volume ‘Family Chronicle’ by Petru Dumitriu. It related the Romanian occupation of the Bulgarian territories (the Cadrilater) —conquered in 1913 — the repressive actions of the Romanian administration, and the resistance of the occupied population. A territory inhabited mostly by Turks and Tatars, joined by Bulgarian, Gagauz, Greek and Romanian (sedentary descendants of mountain shepherds) communities, the Cadrilater was colonised by Romanians from the Bulgarion Timok. With Aromanians, and other Romanian populations from the Balkans, the share of the Romanian population increasing significantly (from 2.3% in 1910 to 26.2% in 1940), but without exceeding the percentage of the Bulgarian population (37.8% in 1940) or Turkish (36.1% in 1940).
[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkIO8tHfAbU[/embed]
It is common, at least in classrooms, to argue that history is important in order to learn from it. Yet, how are we to learn from history if we are looking at it through the rose-tinted lenses of our respective nations? The history that school taught us homogenised nations and flattened out economic distinctions, while downplaying ethnic diversity. It also catered to a modernisation and Europeanisation discourse that again erased the economic power-networks between countries and classes. We are aware that the examples of dangerously over-simplified historical accounts cannot be summarised in such a short post. Here, we wanted to highlight how the history we are taught in school does not only have an agenda, but is harmful. It sets people against each other without giving real explanations about how our society came to be, creating historically invisible yet socially denigrated people.
Suggested readings:
Achim, Viorel. Țiganii În IstoriaRomâniei. București: Editura Enciclopedică, 1998.
Boatcă, Manuela. “Peripheral Solutions to Peripheral Development: The Case of Early 20th Century Romania.” Journal of World-Systems Research XI, no. I (July 2005): 3–26.
Boatcă, Manuela. “Second Slavery vs. Second Serfdom: Local Labor Regimes of the Global Periphery.” In Social Theory and Regional Studies in the Global Age, edited by Said Amir Arjomand, 361–88. SUNY Press, 2014.
Cosma, Valer Simion. “Obsesia Europenității. Revizitînd Începuturile Națiunii Române,” November 6, 2017. http://ligaoamenilordeculturabontideni.blogspot.com/2017/11/obsesia-europenitatii-revizitind.html.
Drace-Francis, Alex. The Making of Modern Romanian Culture: Literacy and the Development of National Identity. Reprint edition. London: I.B.Tauris, 2013[1988].
Kligman, Gail, and Katherine Verdery. Peasants under Siege: The Collectivization of Romanian Agriculture, 1949-1962. Princeton University Press, 2011.
Kürti, László. “Transylvania, Land beyond Reason: Toward an Anthropological Analysis of a Contested Terrain.” Dialectical Anthropology 14, no. 1 (March 1, 1989): 21–52.
Scurtu, I. “MinoritățiNaționale Din RomâniaÎnAnii 1918-1925.” In Minorități Naționale Din România 1918-1925. Documente, edited by I. Scurtu and L. Boar, 7–14. București: ArhiveleStatului din România, 1995.
Stahl, Henri H. Traditional Romanian Village Communities: The Transition from the Communal to the Capitalist Mode of Production in the Danube Region. Cambridge University Press, 1980.
Verdery, Katherine. Transylvanian Villagers: Three Centuries of Political, Economic, and Ethnic Change. University of California Press, 1983.
[i]Vintilă Mihăilescu, România exotică (Dilema Veche, 2015), http://dilemaveche.ro/sectiune/situa-iunea/articol/romania-exotica